Drugs Alcohol Among Young People - 1049 Words

Drugs assignment Q1 Introduction Drug and alcohol use among under the legal age is lessening more and more by the years. Though it is still a large problem, not to the extent of how many are using, but how often they use and what effect it has around them. Everyone has access to prescription drugs, it is easy to buy and can be extremely dangerous to mess with. Even if the percentage is low, it still has a large effect on the people around them. My outlook on the situation is that there may not be many underage drinkers and drug users, but there still are. Its still a massive problem, I personally know many underage drinkers and plenty of drug users, I have no experience with drugs or alcohol, not to be mistaken that I have felt†¦show more content†¦63.3% of use occurs at rave/dance parties about 4% of young people have illegally used prescribed medication (painkillers, tranquilisers, barbiturates, or steroids) in the last 12 months The percentage of young people using drugs is rather small, but that does not cancel the fact that there are users. The percentage of adults using is getting smaller, and with that, the percentage of the young children are lessening also. This is a very positive look on these numbers, but again, there are still users. Children should be properly educated about drugs and alcohol, many school are provided with speakers and studies, but speakers are adults. And most people don’t like learning from what adults say. Prescription dugs are also being used illegally. This shows that even things that are supposed to help and innocent objects can be used in a harmful manor. Over the counter drugs can also be used to make illegal drugs. Q.4parents against drugs: Throughout the essay, parents and adults have been mentioned many times, because as we all know, children don’t happily follow and adults word. Not up until the teens. Many young people like to experiment on life on their own, learn from their own mistakes. Positive: parents make an impact on their child’s life, negative or positive, either way will make a decision for their children. If the child grows up around drugs and alcohol, the child can either choose to be likeShow MoreRelated Being Popular Essay539 Words   |  3 PagesBeing Popular Drug and alcohol abuse is a serious problem among many young people. Most drug and alcohol abuse happens on the weekend at a party or at a friend’s house. Young people want to be popular and fit in, and if fitting in means drinking or using drugs, they are going to do it. After a few parties, and a few nights out at a friend’s house,young people start to get addicted to drugs and alcohol and their life begins to fall apart.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Being popular is a goal that all teenagers wantRead MoreThe Social Problem Of Teenage Drinking725 Words   |  3 Pageslargest social issues among young people in America today. Although more than half of high schoolers drink on a regular basis, the problem is that they are not aware of how dangerous alcohol can be. Although the health risks of heavy drinking are known and understood, the social habit continues to be accepted as a cultural norm. Is it surprising then, that the young people are beginning to drink at school ages. The reality is that alcohol is often the cause of many problems among these teenagers. SimplyRead More Drugs and Alcohol in the Adolescent Years Essay1547 Words   |  7 PagesDrugs and Alcohol in the Adolescent Years The years of adolescence are a very important time for both young girls and boys to make decisions that will essentially have the power to shape their lives. In life there are conflicts to be overcome from both the â€Å"evil† social world and also a young girl’s vulnerability can cause problems. Both have a huge impact on decisions she will make. Drugs and alcohol are both issues that almost any young person in today’s society is going to comeRead MoreDeterminants of Marijuana Use Essay1052 Words   |  5 Pagesuniversal drug. It is easily accessible to most people and is the number one illicit drug used in North America. Although the availability and knowledge of this drug is fairly equal for all people in North America, marijuana tends to be more prevalent in teenagers and young adults. Maisto, Galizio, and Conners (2004) reported that use of marijuana [in young people] was 8.0% among those aged 12-17; 16% among those aged 18-25, as compared to 6.8% am ong those aged 26-34; and 2.4% among those 35 andRead MoreAlcohol Essay1160 Words   |  5 Pagesprint) Signature: Date Abstract The consumption of alcohol in Australia is becoming a problem, and because of irresponsible and callous drinking, Australia is in need of a more mature drinking culture. The main points in this essay discuss the issues concerning irresponsible drinking amongst teens.They include the effects of alcohol on the adolescent brain, accidents involving underage drinkers and teens delaying the consumption of alcohol for as long as possible. This essay argues that becauseRead MoreShould Marijuana Be Legal?1604 Words   |  7 PagesMarijuana can be a very addicting drug to most people, especially young adults. Most young teens engage in marijuana usage as their first drug of choice. â€Å"Marijuana is known as the most common type of illicit drug use is, and the vast majority of those users are what some have called â€Å"recreational† or â€Å"social† or â€Å"casual† users† (Hart Ksir, 2015). Many people like to smoke among others in order to be social with one another. Young teenagers often enjoy smoking marijuana at a party, friend’s houseRead MoreUnderage Alcohol And Alcohol Abuse1597 Words   |  7 Pagessociety, there is a lot of issues concerning drug and alcohol abuse in schools whether its at the high school or college level. Not only does drug and alcohol consumption effect your overall health, it can effect your academic performance as well. In this paper I am going to be talking about the problems with drug and alcohol abuse, preventions, risks, costs and much more. We are going to dissect the problems with drug alcohol consumption amongst young adults, from high school to college, and I willRead MoreAlcohol Is The Drug Of Choice Among Youth1692 Words   |  7 PagesCan a person be too young to become addicted to alcohol and drugs? Or why is age of first use of alcohol is critically important? There are many questions raised on consumption of alcohol when it comes on drinking at early age. Alcohol often has a strong e ffect on people and throughout history, we have struggled to understand and manage the power of alcohol. However, we hardly think how much alcohol is too much for us, unless we get into any kind of trouble or shows some physical or mental effectsRead MoreSubstance Abuse Is Not A New Problem894 Words   |  4 PagesSubstance Abuse Drug abuse is not a new problem, it has been happening for the longest time, abusing drugs has always been an interesting topic to me because I have never been able to grasp the concept of why addicts start or continue when it is clearly obvious that it has negative effects on the human body. It is a popular conception of common sense, but is false. Drug abusers sometimes are not educated enough to know the damages or the addict truly believes they are not addicted. This topic sparksRead MoreEducation Is An Integral Part Of A Child s Upbringing785 Words   |  4 Pagesmanagement strategy aimed at reducing aggressive, disruptive classroom behavior, a risk factor for adolescent and illicit drug abuse (SAMHSA, 2016). Similarly the focus group participants mentioned that Academia Education from K-12 grade needs to incorporate evidence-based programs in the academic curriculum in addressing alcohol and other drug use among the youth. NH young adults emphasized the importance of introduc ing substance misuse education in early school age from elementary while strengthening

Cuba And The Cold War - 1194 Words

According to Freedomhouse.org, from the 195 countries that had been assessed, forty six percent were rated free, twenty eight percent partly free, and twenty 6 percent not Free. 51 countries have an authoritarian government where the rights of the citizens has been diminished and left in the grasp of the government. All humans have natural rights that should not be squandered by the greediness and cruelty of those in charge. One of the most important questions asked is why some countries are democratic and others authoritarian. During the Cold War, the competition was between capitalism and communism. Since those days, Russia has decided to turn its economic system into a more capitalist structure. Their economy has begun to grow exponentially, which as a result expanded the middle class. The richer the citizens get, the more aware of their surroundings they became. Cuba is a world-renowned oppressive regime under the rule of the Castro family. They dismissed democratic ideology and the free market system, which had been proven successful in other countries. On the opposite side, countries such as Australia provide their citizens with the natural rights they are entitled to. They are a surging capitalist country that has been reaping off the benefits of the open market and private ownership. The main distinction between the two countries of Cuba and Australia is how capitalist the countries are. The degree of their capitalism has a ripple effect on the citizens, which overShow MoreRelated Cuba in the Cold War Essay1821 Words   |  8 Pages On April 17, 1961 one of the greatest foreign policy mistakes of the Cold War was made, the attempted invasion of the Bay of Pigs, Cuba. The failed invasion happened under the administration of John F. Kennedy and caused the deaths and imprisonment of over 1500 Cuban exiles fighting to over throw the rule of Fidel Castro. The aftermath caused much larger impacts towards United States foreign policy. The invasion made the United States look imperialistic to the rest of the world and allowed theRead MoreA Cold War Relic : Should The United States Seek Tighten The Economic Grip On Cuba? If So900 Words   |  4 PagesA Cold War Relic Should the United States seek to tighten the economic grip on Cuba? If so, why? In looking at the situation with common sense and practicality, a continued economic grip on Cuba, and more importantly the Cuban people, is relatively useless without the cooperation from a large number of other countries. It makes even less sense when you consider that the United States trades with countries with similar political ideologies such as China and Vietnam, China now a part of the WorldRead MoreCuban Missile Impact On The World Of The Cold War902 Words   |  4 PagesCuban Missile War Is Cuban communism the beginning of the Cold War? Could the Cuban Missile Crisis end in the world devastation? According to freedictionary.com, nuclear war is â€Å"war in which nuclear weapons are used by both sides. As generally used, the term assumes major use of nuclear weapons by at least two opposing warring states.† The invasion of Cuba by United States caused by the alliances between Cuba and the Soviet Union brought conflict between those countries. The United State tried toRead MoreJohn F. Kennedy Gave the Order for the Bay of Pigs Invasion1100 Words   |  4 Pagesto invade Cuba and overthrow Castro, America was expecting a victory. The American population expected Cuba to be destroyed. They thought Cuba could not stand up to the United States. What they didn’t expect was that Cuba would put up a fight. The Bay of Pigs invasion was a deciding factor in the Cold War that gave Cuba and the Soviet Union strength, and decreased morale and confidence in the Ameri cans. The Bay of Pigs invasion took place during the Cold War, which was not an actual war, but it consistedRead MoreCuban Missile Crisis : A Ten Day Confrontation Between The United States And The Soviet Union 878 Words   |  4 PagesMissile Crisis Essay The Cuban Missile Crisis was a thirteen day confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union in October of 1962. The stand off was over Soviet ballistic missiles deployed in Cuba. The Cuban Missile Crisis was the closest the Cold War ever came to a full out nuclear war. The event was broadcasted on television for the world to see causing a global panic, especially in America. John F. Kennedy announced that the U.S. would use a naval blockade to eliminate the Cuban threatRead MoreConceptions of the Cold War Essay1006 Words   |  5 Pagesterm Cold War? The term Cold War can be defined as the period of political impasse which existed between our country (U.S.A.) and U.S.S.R. from the early 1950s until the fall of Communism in the early 1980s. Words and phrases associated with Cold War include, race to arms, race to space, Bay of Pigs, and The Berlin Wall. Did you ever study the Cold War in school? If so, what are some aspects of the Cold War that you remember? Having been born in 1952, I lived during the Cold WarRead MoreU.s. Cuba Relations : A Discussion Of Constructivism And Realism1329 Words   |  6 PagesU.S. – Cuba Relations: A Discussion of Constructivism and Realism During the Cold War, relations between Cuba and the United States were icy. Cuba was allied with the USSR, America’s enemy, and was well within their sphere of influence. With events like the failed Bay of Pigs invasion and the Cuban Missile Crisis happening on their soil, Cuba was at the center of the Cold War. Between ideological differences and their alliance with Russia, Cuba became an enemy of America as well. It took the effortsRead MoreThe Significance of the Cuban Missile Crisis Essay1686 Words   |  7 PagesIn order to understand the importance of the Cuban Missile Crisis one must understand, the Cold war drama; the dangerous crisis; and its importance today. In order to understand the importance of the Cuban Missile Crisis in American history one must first understand the Cold War drama, Castro’s rise to power, and the American operations that set up the crisis. â€Å"The term Cold War refers to the post-World war II global geostrategic, economic, and ideological competition between the East, led by theRead MoreCold War Influence in Latin America1616 Words   |  7 PagesCold War Influence in Latin America The United States and the Soviet Union competed against each other during the Cold War in the second half of the 20th Century like a chess game, with the world as their chessboard and countries as pawns in their game. For the Russians, a critical part of the chessboard was Cuba and Latin America. The Russians believed that if they could align themselves with countries in the western hemisphere, America’s â€Å"backyard†, it would help the Soviet Union counter the strongRead MoreWhat Major Events in the Cold War Caused Fidel Castro to Side with the Soviet Union Super Power?805 Words   |  4 PagesWhat major events in the Cold War caused Fidel Castro to side with the Soviet Union Super Power? In the 1960’s the world was largely dominated by the Cold War which was a long period of tension and hostility that only occasionally broke out into open warfare. This conflict was caused by the rivalry of two superpowers - the United States and the Soviet Union and emerged after the Second World War. Both super powers had different ideologies - the United States was a capitalist democracy, whereas

Digital Communities Strategy

Question: Discuss about the Digital Communities Strategy. Answer: Introduction: Communication is nothing but the systematic process of exchanging necessary information and ideas based on which both the sender and receiver can interact with each other. At the current era, mass communication has expanded their widespread wings throughout the World. Mass communication enables to multiply the messages beyond going any particular geographical boundary with the help of various medium. The primary purpose of implementing an effective communication strategy is to make a strong connection among various communities. This particular study has primarily focused to deal with multi-platform communication strategy. Multi-platform communication is one of the major parts of mass communication. Two different multiplatform communication tools have been decided to be chosen. Based on the two different multiplatform communication tools the study has focused to point out various impacts of multiplatform communication strategy. The concept of multiplatform communication strategy: In the current era, the use of multi-platform communication media has become a necessity for increasing the wide spread wings throughout World. Professional communicators while expanding their business worldwide need to know how to utilize various media platform in order to make an effective communication with the people of different community (Antonio, Grimaccia and Mussetta 2012). When a business organization intends to launch a new product, the marketing managers have to utilize the popularity of media in order to draw the attention of the people from different community. At that time, this particular business organization intends to use multi-platform communication strategy for creating a market demand on their product. With the help of multiplatform communication, strategy has been used mainly to draw the attention of different community people (Bechmann 2012). People of different culture and attitude belong to a particular community. Some of them are very much advanced in techn ology and some is not that much familiar to use the utility of online media platform. The key role of a professional communicator is to reach the doorsteps of every kind of target people. In this situation, multiplatform communication strategy has been used to deal with the people of various culture and attitude (Candel 2012). In addition, while promoting a new brand business organizations aims to reach their products in various remote areas. Therefore, online platform is fruitful for the advanced people, especially for the young generation. On the other hand, offline media platform can easily draw the attention of middle aged and old aged persons. Various tools of multiplatform communication strategy: Multiplatform communication strategy is constituted with two major tools primarily that include online communication platform and offline communication platform. With the help of online communication platform, the communicators intend to draw the attention of different community people belonging from various geographical areas (Del Mar Grando and Bonaut 2012). On the other hand, offline communication platform is used for the regional community primarily. For an example, most the Asian countries have still remained under developing. While promoting a business product in those under developing countries, marketing managers intend to utilize the platform of offline media such as radio, television, newspaper magazine, banner, hoarding, signboard and so many. Online communication platform: Among the online communication platform, the professional communicators primarily intend to use the popularity of social media in order to draw the attention of various different communities. Among the social media platform, the name of facebook, twitter, instagarm are most prominent (Friedrichsen and Mhl-Benninghaus 2013). With the help of facebook and twitter, people of various remote areas are able to keep a constant relation with each other. Numerous business organizations like to utilize the platform of facebook by providing online advertisements. People of different countries get the opportunities to see this advertisement (Garca-Avils 2012). As a result, their brand does not remain restricted within a particular regional area. This is one of the most effective ways to promote a new brand. Social media is one of the most popular platforms based on which various business organizations can reach their brand in the international market. Young generations are the fervent users of f acebook and twitter. Ghanam, Maurer and Abrahamsson (2012) stated that most of the countries of Australia, UK, US intend to utilize the popularity of online media. Due to the technological advancement, the people of these countries are well acquainted with social media platform. Off line communication platform Among the offline television platform the use of television is most prominent. Television has been considered as a mass communication that can multiply the messages. People of different areas come to know about the new brands and products. Business organizations generally intend to promote their product through television advertising. Most of the renowned organizations tend to pay for prime time so that their new product can draw the attention of most of the people. Goyanes and Drrenberg (2014) opined that middle-aged persons are the prime users of television. Therefore, business organizations can easily utilize television in order to draw the attention of target customers. Major strategies on multiplatform communication Multiplatform strategy has been used primarily in order to engage the people for making an effective communication (Guerrero, Diego and Pardo 2013). In case of any business organization, business experts like to follow multiplatform business strategy in order to draw the attention of people from various culture and background. The ways that multiplatform strategy can be applied are as followed: Customer centric strategy rather than the platform centric: One of the biggest reasons of using multiplatform strategy inside the organizations is to impress different kinds of customers. Various business organizations intend to use multiplatform communication strategy for drawing the attention of different kind of people (Korda and Itani 2013). People from 18 to 34 age group are mainly comfortable with online media. Therefore, business organizations like to use social media such as facebook, twitter for increasing the attention of young generation primarily. Creating a consistent and integrated attention: When a business organization intends to maintain a promotional activity, the business experts tend to use multiplatform media in order to quench the thirst of target consumers. As per the consumer behavior, people want to gather a detailed knowledge and information about a particular product before purchasing it (Lin 2012). Media is one of the most effective platforms based on which people of various cultures and background can come to detailed information about this specific brand. Therefore, multiplatform media is able to create a consistent attention in between the communicators and receivers. Understanding demographic differences Professional communicators like to segregate the multiplatform media as per the demographic market segmentation. Demographic market segmentation has been conducted according to gender, income status and age group of people. While launching a new business in a developed country like Australia, the business managers would like to segregate the market as per the income level of target consumers (Mic, Masip and Domingo 2013). The media has been utilized based on the age group. For an example, off line media such as television, radio, newspaper, magazines are primarily useful for the age of above 40 people. On the other hand, social media platform has been used for 18 to 35 age group primarily. Impact of multiplatform communication strategy: People get high benefits and facilities by using multiplatform communication strategy inside the organization. Before purchasing a product from a particular organization, the target customers can come to know an in-depth overview about this particular product. As a result, it is beneficial for both the organization and the customers. At the same time, this communication strategy is not devoid of some of its negative impact as well. However, in this part, both the positive and the negative impacts of multiplatform communication strategy have been discussed in detailed. To make an effective communication with the people By using multiplatform communication strategy, both the sender and receiver can make an effective interaction with each other. While promoting a new product business organizations like to create a public forum in the new media platform (Srensen 2013). Through this particular public forum both the service providers and the receivers are able to maintain a communication. Consumers are free to know their feedback about the product and service system of the company. In addition, they can make a complaint as well against the service system. Service providers on the other hand intend to change their business strategy as per the feedback received from the customers. In case of off line media, the business organization receives the feedback being delayed. With the help of off line media, consumers cannot get the opportunity to communicate directly with the organization. In spite of that it is undeniable that people of various culture and background are able to make an effective interact with the help of multiplatform media. To unite people in a huge platform Multiplatform communication strategy is able to unite people in a huge platform. For an example, if a business organization intends to give an online advertising in social media platform, this organization is able to create the attention of a large number of people at a time. They get the scope to receive numerous reactions from various people with the help of like post. Apart from clicking at the like button, people are to make comment on the same page. Organizations use to receive a million of comments in a same platform (Lin 2012). This particular feedback is very much helpful for the organization as well. They get the opportunity to change their business strategy in order to satisfy the needs and demands of the customers. In case of offline media platform, the type of maintaining unity can be considered in a different way. While showing a television advertisement people of various culture and attitude watch the same advertisement. From that perspective, it is undeniable that multiplatform communication strategy is definitely able to unite a large number of people in the same platform. The negative impacts of multiplatform strategies are as follows: Harmful for students: Both the offline and the online communication platform are harmful for the students as well. Especially online media platform renders addiction on the mind of students. They become addicted in piracy activities. As a result, it indirectly hampers the society. Scope to promote propaganda: Business organizations with the help of multimedia platform intend to involve in propaganda while promoting their business (Srensen 2013). While preparing the concept of advertisement, business experts like to use numerous epithets. With the help of these epithets, they can easily manipulate the customers. People generally intend to pay their attention to purchase the product by getting tempted from the colorful advertisements. Conclusion: This particular study has provided a detailed understanding about the importance of multiplatform communication strategy for maintaining an effective interaction in between the sender and the receiver. At the very beginning, the study has provided a clear concept about the multiplatform communication strategy. Among the various media platform the importance of offline media and the online media has been discussed in detail. Social media such as facebook, twitter have been considered in the category of online media. On the other hand, among the off line media platform the impacts of television for drawing the attention of people are most prominent. This particular study has focused to highlight both the positive impact as well as the negative impacts. Reference List: Antonio, P., Grimaccia, F. and Mussetta, M., 2012. Architecture and methods for innovative heterogeneous wireless sensor network applications.Remote Sensing,4(5), pp.1146-1161. Bechmann, A., 2012. Towards Cross-Platform Value Creation: Four patterns of circulation and control.Information, Communication Society,15(6), pp.888-908. Candel, R.S., 2012.Adapting Public Service to the Multiplatform Scenario: Challenges, Opportunities and Risks. Hamburg: Hans-Bredow-Institut. Del Mar Grando, M. and Bonaut, J., 2012. Transmedia audiences and television fiction: A comparative approach between Skins (UK) and El Barco (Spain).Participations: Journal of Audience Reception Studies, (9), p.2. Friedrichsen, M. and Mhl-Benninghaus, W. eds., 2013.Handbook of social media management: value chain and business models in changing media markets. Springer Science Business Media. Garca-Avils, J.A., 2012. Roles of audience participation in multiplatform television: From fans and consumers, to collaborators and activists.Participations. Journal of Audience and Reception Studies,9(2), pp.429-447. Ghanam, Y., Maurer, F. and Abrahamsson, P., 2012. Making the leap to a software platform strategy: Issues and challenges.Information and Software Technology,54(9), pp.968-984. Gligorijevic, B. and Luck, E., 2012. Engaging Social CustomersInfluencing New Marketing Strategies for Social Media Information Sources. InContemporary research on e-business technology and strategy(pp. 25-40). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Goyanes, M. and Drrenberg, C., 2014. A taxonomy of newspapers based on multi-platform and paid content strategies: Evidences from Spain.International Journal on Media Management,16(1), pp.27-45. Guerrero, E., Diego, P. and Pardo, A., 2013. Distributing audiovisual contents in the new digital scenario: Multiplatform strategies of the main Spanish TV networks. InHandbook of social media management(pp. 349-373). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Korda, H. and Itani, Z., 2013. Harnessing social media for health promotion and behavior change.Health promotion practice,14(1), pp.15-23. Lin, T.T., 2012. Cross-platform framing and cross-cultural adaptation: Examining elephant conservation in Thailand.Environmental Communication: A Journal of Nature and Culture,6(2), pp.193-211. Mic, J.L., Masip, P. and Domingo, D., 2013. To wish impossible things* Convergence as a process of diffusion of innovations in an actor-network.International Communication Gazette,75(1), pp.118-137. Srensen, I.E., 2013. Channels as content curators: Multiplatform strategies for documentary film and factual content in British public service broadcasting.European Journal of Communication, p.0267323113504856.

The Early Modern European Economy Book Review Essay Example

The Early Modern European Economy Book Review Essay The Early Modern European Economy: A book review In â€Å"The Early Modern European Economy†, Peter Musgrave attempts to express and formulate an underlying pattern from modern studies of the early modern period. The underlying focus of the book is the transformation of the feudal system in the early modern period to the economy of the nineteenth and twentieth century. Musgrave attempts to conjoin new works on the topic of the early modern European economy by analyzing the key structures and arguments in recent material. In doing this, Musgrave attempts to deviate from historical viewpoints by defining Europe and the early modern age, identifying turning points in economic development, and distinguishing this period from previous ones. â€Å"The Early Modern European Economy† reexamines our understanding of how the economy is shaped, and delves into new interpretations that suggest social and cultural aspects determine economic activity. This review takes the perspective of what the book gives is useful in understanding the development of the economic system in the early modern period. However, it lacks a clear foundation in explaining the exact cause of how the transformation started feudalism to capitalism. Each chapter will be looked at in turn. Development and Change Although modern economic principles provide useful tools for the historian, the focus must be on the theoretical structure if we truly wish to understand the past. Musgrave states that we need to look past traditional perspectives that modern economic principles can be applied in this period. The reasons for using a theoretical approach lie in the fact that economics are very closely related to the social sciences. We will write a custom essay sample on The Early Modern European Economy Book Review specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Early Modern European Economy Book Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Early Modern European Economy Book Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer A key figure in the foundations of economic development, Musgrave cites, belongs to Karl Marx. Separate from Marxism in the Soviet Union, he refers to Marx’s impact in stating the importance of the process of production. Factors such as what is produced, how it is produced, financed, and how organization and employment of labor give foundation to the roots of economic development (Musgrave 1999, 15). Marx states the polarization of wealth between classes brought upon economic, political and social tensions that produced change and growth. In understanding economic development in Europe as a whole, rganization of production plays a more crucial role than following the paradigm of the industrialized superpowers of Britain and Northern Netherlands. Stratagems and Spoils Instead of solely looking at development in the macroeconomic perspective, focus is shifted on individual choices. Musgrave highlights the importance that individuals and communities were not constrained by econom ic forces, rather they had choices between different courses of action that were determined by factors such as possible outcome, individual (or groups) aims and intentions, and the perception of the situation. The traditional opinion that majority of the population endured poverty and had no economic opportunity is no longer a widely accepted view (Musgrave 1999, 36). Contrary to traditional views that Europeans stayed in only one village, Musgrave states that such issues as migration actually improved the state of the economy instead of hindering it, as it allowed for more prosperous choices to Europeans if they were restricted or otherwise not able to maximize prosperity and security. Choices were in a large part, strategic and involved the minimization of risk. Climate, political structure, medical knowledge, and profit maximization are all factors that influenced decision making for Europeans, and these certainly helped shape and develop the economy. The Rise of a Consumer Society Thus far, issues of demand and consumption have largely been ignored in favor of production. Musgrave explains that this concentration on production is mainly due to the belief of a stagnant economy driven by poverty and subsistence; one that did not allow for questions of consumption to even be considered (Musgrave 1999, 59). However, economic historians are gradually discovering increasingly large amounts of evidence that consumption expanded due to families buying goods not purely for survival. Due to increased international trade and production, there was a much wider selection of goods available that allowed Europeans the choice for different goods including clothing, textiles, and even raw materials. Musgrave argues that there is an increasing pattern in time spent on leisure activities and the demand for them (Musgrave 1999, 64). A higher quality of life was now taking place because Europeans did not spend all their time on work. As the booming clothing and fashion industry continued, so did demand for innovation and change, which in turn helped produce change in the general pattern of industrialization in the early modern period. Transportation and communication systems evolved, which in turn greatly aided the development of European industry and commerce. The Role of the State An important yet scarce source of information comes from the role of the state within the economy. What historians do know is that the role of the state was central to the development of the economy by creating greater pressure towards monetarisation of the economy; mainly from the switch of payment in cash rather than in kind (Musgrave 1999, 86). It is known that states had difficulty increasing income because of poor taxation methods and documentation, and therefore the only way to increase that income was to borrow money or subsequently reduce metallic content in coinage, which in turn reduced the value of currency. Borrowing led to a dramatic increase in states’ refusal and inability to pay lenders, causing bankruptcies and further destabilizing the economy which encouraged the development of more modern banking systems (Musgrave 1999, 92). Taxation revenue used for financing the states own activities instead of being used as a tool of economic or social management resulted in frequent financial crises. It is not without saying that spending did not act as an economic stimulus however, as large infrastructure projects as well as war production created employment and improved production (Musgrave 1999, 100). With the poor taxation and documentation system, it is very difficult to assess the overall effect of the state on early modern economic development. It is however of great importance that we do not assess the early modern state based on the same aims, principles, structure, and effects of the modern state. The Prosperity of the South Traditional historians believe that the downturn of the South happened because of the rapidly developing North, but Musgrave states that this is based on intellectual constraints imposed from outside (Musgrave 1999, 113). Around the time of 1590, the South began to experience an economic decline while the North prospered with increased urbanization, migration, and agricultural systems. Musgrave states that the South was plagued by the Malthusian downturn, defined as an increase in demand and pressure on limited resources because of population increase (Musgrave 1999, 117). Agriculture was not specialized and in many cases, expansion into marginal land with low crop yields occurred which resulted in massive deforestation. Southern banks were under increased pressure as well because of majority of Europe borrowing and not repaying, thus driving up interest rates and leading to unattractive investment opportunities within the South. Eventually, due to an improving climate and the South’s strong focus on finance and banking helped them re-emerge from this economic crisis (Musgrave 1999, 134). Although the South did not grow as rapidly as the North, Musgrave reinforces the notion that their ability to solve the crisis within their own system suggests it was in many ways more prosperous and successful than the North. The Prosperity of the North Development of conveniently located port cities such as Amsterdam and London played a major part in the North’s prosperity. Additionally, changes in agriculture production greatly benefited the economy of the North. Joint stock financing also allowed companies to achieve much larger scale operations containing entrepreneurial goals, focusing on long-term profit and growth through mass production. Despite the advantages of joint stock financing and having such features as a Board of Directors, a Council, and dividend payments for investors, many companies still relied on financing through debt (Musgrave 1999, 151). Bond investors were much more numerous, as receiving regular coupon payments was much more attractive in the eyes of investors seeking stability and security. â€Å"This was hardly a shareholding revolution, nor yet a revolution in economic attitudes†, Musgrave states (Musgrave 1999, 151). Rapid growth and development came at a cost however, and because of advancing technology, demand for labor decreased. This economic advancement created a more serious subsistence crisis and depressions than the South. Traditional historians have viewed Northern Europe as more successful in economic development and growth but Musgrave however points out that majority of comparisons made between the two are based on comparing patterns of unlike to unlike (i. e. comparing leading sectors of the North with weak sectors of the South). Instead of viewing a North vs. South relationship, Musgrave states; they were in fact closely similar systems existing comfortably together, and if anything, the levels of prosperity in the South were higher until at least 1770 (Musgrave 1999, 159). Europe’s Place in the World Many traditional historians viewed the rest of the world as not being nearly as developed as Europe. Europeans themselves believed that they were able transform the political, economic and cultural patterns of non-European nations. The assumption that Europe civilized Asia with financial and technological superiority is wrong (Musgrave 1999, 164). European trade with Asia became restricted due to different political ideologies; quotas and tariffs were placed on goods frequently, not to mention extremely risky trade routes by sea. It was only due to Europe’s gold and precious metals/materials influx that made trade possible between the two regions. As Europe developed however, they were increasingly able to produce many goods that were sought after in Asian trade. At this same time, Europe was developing expansion in North America quite rapidly, and along with a booming textile and wool industry, slave trade became prominent. Musgrave argues that developments in the Americas were largely dependent on cooperation of the African states and slave traders (Musgrave 1999, 179). Despite Europe’s internal difficulties with inflation and unemployment, wealth gained in the Caribbean from sugar plantations brought major stimulus to Europe’s economy and played a major role in industrialization. It was clear that although Europe had their own struggles, the rest of the non-European world was facing development issues too. European expansion proved to be of crucial historic importance and helped the region in terms of economic development well into the 19th century. After reading â€Å"The Early Modern European Economy†, it is hard not to agree with many of the viewpoints Musgrave offers. The strongpoints of this text re highlighted in Musgrave’s criticism of previous historical approaches. This book emphasizes what we often forget about; the economy is very much shaped by the individual choices made by consumers. It is true that we cannot compare our own society to that of the past, and for this I agree with Musgrave. However, I feel he does not nearly touch on the beginning transformations of feudalism to capitalism enough. Questions such as; how did feudalistic entrepreneurs react to the increasingly changing economy, and the exact spark that set off the capitalistic venture, were not explained thoroughly enough. I feel that this was vital to the subject in understanding how such change developed. Despite this, I would highly recommend this book to readers interested in the subject of the early modern European economy. Peter Musgrave conceives patterns from the most up to date research, dispelling myths that have bedeviled the study of early modern Europe. â€Å"The Early Modern European Economy† is an invaluable resource in gaining resourceful insights on early economic development. Bibliography Musgrave, Peter. The Early Modern European Economy. Vol. 1. 1 vols. New York, N. Y. : St. Martins Press, Scholarly and Reference Division, 1999.